Improvements in or relating to dna recombination

ABSTRACT

There is provided a non-PCR based method for construction of a DNA recombination fragment with necessary flanking regions homologous to a desired site of genetic manipulation within a target DNA required for recombination-based manipulation of said target DNA, comprising the steps of: A) identifying a desired site of insertion for a genetic element in said target DNA; B) locating an endogenous, native, half-site of a selected restriction endonuclease present upstream of the site within the DNA to be targeted for genetic manipulation and thereby defining the 5′ extent of an upstream homology region; C) locating an endogenous, native, half-site of the same selected restriction endonuclease present downstream of the site within the DNA to be targeted for genetic manipulation and thereby defining the 3′ extent of a downstream homology region; D) synthesising a flanking region cassette resulting in juxtapositioning of the upstream and downstream half-sites thereby causing formation of complete restriction site for the selected restriction endonuclease flanked by said upstream and downstream homology regions; and E) inserting the flanking region cassette into a plasmid vector which includes the genetic element to be used to manipulate the target DNA, conferring upon the plasmid vector the necessary flanking homology regions for recombination within the said target DNA at the desired site of insertion.

The present invention relates generally to DNA recombination and particularly to a method for production of DNA recombination fragments with necessary flanking regions homologous to a desired site of genetic manipulation within a target DNA required for recombination-based manipulation of the target DNA. As such, the present invention relates to CrispR/Cas9-based, E/T-based and other recombination-based technologies that use such DNA fragments as an integral part of their recombination systems.

Recombination mechanisms are still incompletely defined, but involve the copying, cutting and covalent joining of DNA sequences. Recombination can occur between two different DNA molecules (intermolecular recombination) or between two regions of a single DNA molecule (intramolecular recombination).

The present invention provides a method of inserting desired genetic element(s) into any target genome comprised of recombination of a homology-flanked genetic element(s), formed as described herein, into the said target genome.

The present invention also relates to techniques for rapid genetic manipulation of viruses and virus-based vectors. The target DNA may be a viral genome; for example a herpesvirus genome such as CMV.

According to an aspect of the present invention there is provided a non-PCR based method for construction of a DNA recombination fragment with necessary flanking regions homologous to a desired site of genetic manipulation within a target DNA required for recombination-based manipulation of said target DNA.

An overview of this invention being used for manipulation of a DNA virus (herpesvirus) genome is shown graphically. Subsequent figures contain examples of where this invention has been reduced to practice.

An aspect of the invention is comprised of the following steps:

-   -   A) identifying a desired site of insertion for a genetic element         in said target DNA (Overview Figure, A);     -   B) locating an endogenous (native) half-site of a selected         restriction endonuclease present upstream of the site within the         DNA to be targeted for genetic manipulation and thereby defining         the 5′ extent of the upstream homology region (Overview Figure,         A);     -   C) locating an endogenous (native) half-site of the same         selected restriction endonuclease present downstream of the site         within the DNA to be targeted for genetic manipulation and         thereby defining the 3′ extent of the downstream homology region         (Overview Figure, A);     -   D) synthesising a flanking region cassette (FRC) resulting in         juxtapositioning of the upstream and downstream half-sites         thereby causing formation of complete restriction site for the         selected restriction endonuclease flanked by said upstream and         downstream homology regions (Overview Figure, B); and     -   E) inserting the FRC into a plasmid vector which includes the         genetic element(s) to be used to manipulate the target DNA,         conferring upon the plasmid vector the necessary flanking         homology regions for recombination within the said target DNA at         the desired site of insertion (Overview Figure, C & D).

A second aspect of this invention utilises heterologous (non-native) half-sites, which are not present within the native DNA sequence of the flanking target genome. This use of heterologous (non-native) half-sites is the only difference between the two versions of this invention. Non-native half-sites can be used if the recombination technology being exploited for genetic manipulation of the target DNA does not require native sequence at the ends of the DNA recombination fragment.

This modification of the invention is comprised of the following steps:

-   -   A) identifying a desired site of insertion for a genetic element         in said target DNA;     -   B) selection of heterologous (non-native) half-sites of a         selected restriction endonuclease, with restriction site         selection being based on absence of the restriction site in its         complete form within upstream and downstream homology regions         flanking the DNA region to be targeted;     -   C) synthesising a FRC including upstream and downstream homology         regions and resulting in juxtapositioning of the upstream and         downstream flanking homology regions separated by their         non-native half-sites thereby causing formation of a complete         restriction site for the selected restriction endonuclease         flanked by the homology regions; and     -   D) inserting the FRC into a plasmid vector which includes the         genetic element(s) to be used to manipulate the target DNA;         conferring upon the vector the necessary flanking homology         regions for recombination within the genome at the target site.

The method further comprises the step of linearising the vector by using the selected restriction endonuclease to cut within the FRC to form a recombination fragment, whereby the recombination fragment has the necessary flanking homology regions to direct recombination within the genome at the target site.

The restriction endonuclease site may be selected on the basis that it is not present within either the flanking homology region or genetic element used during manipulation of the target DNA.

In some embodiments the upstream and downstream homology regions are at least 50 nucleotides in length (e.g. the size required for efficient E/T-based recombination). In other embodiments the regions are at least 500 nucleotides in length (e.g. the size required for efficient CrispR/Cas9 recombination). Other recombination technologies may require additional homology region sizes.

The recombination fragment made using this invention may, for example, be inserted using E/T-based recombination or CrispR/Cas9-based recombination, or other recombination technologies (eg., RecA-based).

The present invention in one aspect or embodiment may provide a method of generating a recombination fragment for genetic manipulation of a viral genome using E/T-based or CrispR/Cas9-based recombination, or other recombination technologies (eg., RecA-based) that uses a plasmid vector or recombination fragment formed according to a method as described herein into a viral genome.

This invention in other aspects or embodiments may be used for rapid construction of herpesvirus-based vaccines against emerging infectious disease (EID) pathogens. Most biologically significant (i.e., deadly and transmissible) ‘high-risk’ pathogens: 1) Erupt from EID ‘hotspot’ regions of the world (frequently politically unstable developing countries at lower latitudes); 2) Transmit to humans ‘zoonotically’ (i.e., from animals to humans) either directly, or indirectly through domestic animals (horses, pigs, etc.), from a small number of ‘high-value’ wildlife species (rodents, bats and non-human primates); and 3) Exist as RNA viruses never previously encountered. To date there is no robust means to control emergence of these high-risk pathogens either in wildlife species or in domestic animals. It is known that most viral high-risk pathogens tested can be immunologically targeted through vaccination, commonly by using their major surface protein as the target antigen. Experience with rabies in temperate regions also shows that effective vaccination of wildlife has the capacity to prevent zoonotic transmission. However, vaccination of wildlife (or domestic animals involved in transmission) under more extreme conditions present in EID ‘hotspots’ is currently an insurmountable problem for conventional vaccination that requires individual inoculation of each animal for induction of immunity.

The present invention provides a method of rapidly constructing a recombinant virus or virus-based vaccine comprising the step of CrispR/Cas9-based recombination of a plasmid vector or recombination fragment formed according to a method as described herein into a viral genome. When combined with effective pre-emptive surveillance, such an embodiment will provide a means to pre-emptively remove an imminent EID threat at its source prior to establishment in humans.

In one aspect and embodiment, the present invention, in combination with rapid recombination technologies such as CrispR/Cas9, is used to construct a ‘single-shot’ herpesvirus-based vaccine able to provide durable, long-lasting levels of protective immunity against after a single dose.

In another aspect or embodiment, the present invention, in combination with a rapid recombination technology such as CrispR/Cas9, is used to construct a ‘self-disseminating’ (SD) vaccine. SD vaccines exploit the ability of replicating herpesvirus-based vectors to spread through their animal host populations without the need for direct inoculation of every animal. In this embodiment, the invention is used to rapidly produce a SD vaccine against an identified EID pathogen threat, which can be utilized to inoculate a limited number of ‘founder’ animals of the involved animal species. As the SD vaccine is engineered to express target antigens from the EID pathogen of interest, spread from vaccinated to non-vaccinated animals of the SD vaccine results in coordinate spread of EID specific immunity throughout the targeted animal population.

In one aspect or embodiment, the invention is used in combination with CRISPR/Cas9, or similarly rapid recombination technology for rapid construction of single-shot or SD vaccines as a means to enable effective immunological targeting of high-risk pathogens in wildlife (or domestic animals involved in transmission) in EID hotspots.

In combination with CrispR/Cas9 technology, the invention uses replicating herpesviruses for vaccine construction. This is in contrast to BAC-based approaches, which use a single herpesvirus genome maintained as a BAC. In addition to increasing the speed of vaccine construction, this use of genetically non-identical mixtures of viruses as the genetic background for the CrispR/Cas9-based cloning diminishes potential problems associated with BAC-based cloning, which necessarily use a single parental genotype that may in some cases be unknowingly attenuated.

The vaccine may comprise a herpesvirus-based vector, for example a CMV-based vector.

The CMV-based vector may be selected from, but is not limited to, human CMV (HCMV), simian CMV (SCCMV), rhesus macaque CMV (RhCMV), chimpanzee CMV (CCMV) murine CMV (MCMV), gorilla CMV (GoCMV) and porcine CMV (PCMV).

The herpesvirus-based vector may additionally be selected from, but is not limited to, bovine herpesvirus 4 (BoHV-4), equine herpesvirus 2 (EHV-2), mustelid herpesvirus 1 (MusHV-1).

The present invention also provides technology to construct a vaccine consisting of, comprising or including a vector as described herein.

The present invention also provides a composition comprising the vaccine or vector as described herein and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

The present invention also provides a method for production of a vaccine to treat a subject with an infectious disease, or at risk of becoming infected with an infectious disease comprising selecting a subject in need of treatment and administering to the subject the recombinant vector, vaccine or composition as described herein.

The subject may be, for example, a human or an animal (such as wildlife or a domestic animal).

The present invention also provides a method for production of a vaccine, vector or composition as described herein for the prevention or treatment of a disease.

The present invention may be applicable to veterinary and human infectious disease control and human and animal medicine.

In some aspects and embodiments the present invention relates to an improvement to recombination systems, which results from the new PCR-independent production method of the necessary DNA recombination fragments (genetic elements) for insertion within a target genome.

In a further aspect the present invention provides a method for PCR-independent production of a DNA recombination fragment with necessary flanking regions homologous to a desired site of genetic manipulation within a target DNA required for recombination-based manipulation of said target DNA, comprising the steps of:

-   A) locating respective endogenous (native) ‘half-sites’ of a     selected restriction endonuclease present upstream and downstream of     the site within the DNA to be targeted for genetic manipulation.     Alternatively, non-endogenous (non-native) half-sites that are not     present within the DNA region to be targeted may be used. -   B) synthesising (using any existing DNA synthesis technology) a FRC     resulting in juxtaposition of selected ‘half-sites’ thereby causing     formation of complete restriction site for the selected restriction     endonuclease. -   C) inserting the FRC into a circular vector which includes the     genetic element to be used to manipulate the target DNA. -   D) linearising the vector (if linearization is required for said     recombination being used) by using the selected restriction     endonuclease to cut within the cassette to form a recombination     fragment, whereby the recombination fragment has the necessary     flanking homology regions for recombination within the genome at the     target site.

The upstream and downstream flanking arms may be positioned as shown in accompanying figures.

Following insertion into a circular DNA vector that contains any additional genetic information to be inserted into the target DNA molecule during its manipulation, cleavage with the restriction enzyme results in a recombination fragment with required upstream and downstream homologous regions (if linearization is required for said recombination system being used).

The endonuclease may be a rare cutter and not present within either the flanking homology region or genetic element used during manipulation of the target DNA, as would be apparent to a person generally skilled in the art of molecular biology. A rare-cutter enzyme is a restriction enzyme with a recognition sequence that occurs only rarely in a genome. For example, rare-cutter enzymes with 8-nucleotide recognition sites cut on average once every 4⁸ bp (65,536 bp).

The use of endogenous (native) ‘half-sites’ in the present invention enables insertion of desired DNA modification into target genome without addition of any additional, heterologous information to the target genome at the extreme ends of the flanking homology regions.

The present invention also provides a method of combating an EID pathogen following identification of an emerging disease threat comprising the steps of rapidly synthesizing a recombinant virus or virus-based vaccine using one or more method steps as described herein.

The present invention may provide a method for creating a CMV vector, for example for the treatment of cancer, or the treatment of an infectious pathogen-based disease.

Different aspects and embodiments of the invention may be used separately or together.

Further particular and preferred aspects of the present invention are set out in the accompanying independent and dependent claims. Features of the dependent claims may be combined with the features of the independent claims as appropriate, and in combination other than those explicitly set out in the claims.

The present invention will now be more particularly described, by way of example, with reference to the accompanying drawings.

The example embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those of ordinary skill in the art to embody and implement the systems and processes herein described. It is important to understand that embodiments can be provided in many alternate forms and should not be construed as limited to the examples set forth herein.

Accordingly, while embodiment can be modified in various ways and take on various alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof are shown in the drawings and described in detail below as examples.

There is no intent to limit to the particular forms disclosed. On the contrary, all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the scope of the appended claims should be included. Elements of the example embodiments are consistently denoted by the same reference numerals throughout the drawings and detailed description where appropriate.

Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and scientific terms) used herein are to be interpreted as is customary in the art. It will be further understood that terms in common usage should also be interpreted as is customary in the relevant art and not in an idealised or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein.

Page 1—Overview of EZ-Recombination System Overview of EZ-Recombination System.

-   A) Representation of site for genetic element insertion within     herpesvirus genome. ‘A’ (5′-AAAC-3′) and ‘C’ (5′-AAAC-3′ on reverse     strand) represent endogenous ‘half sites’ of rare (8 nt cutters) (in     this case, PmeI: GTTTAAAC) that will be present on average once     every 256 nt within the upstream and downstream endogenous sequence     of the target site for insertion. The particular 8 nt restriction     enzyme sequence selected is based on i) its absence from flanking     regions, and ii) absence from within the suicide-based vector     containing the heterologous genetic element for insertion. -   B) A Flanking Region Cassette (FRC) with the ‘new’ single PmeI site     and necessary restriction sites (E and F) for insertion into the     pminiOri (suicide-based vector) are then synthesized (using an AmpR     carrier vector—generally gene synthesis has been performed by     GeneArt from Invitrogen). -   C) The FRC is cloned into the respective miniOri (suicide-based     vector) containing the genetic element for insertion into the     herpesvirus genome. -   D) Schematic of resulting plasmid. -   E) PmeI digestion is used to linearize the recombination fragment,     which contains the necessary flanking homology regions (HR) for E/T     based recombination within the herpesvirus genome. 5′ Phosphate     residues are shown for DNA strand orientation.

Page 2 and 3—Reduction to Practice

EXAMPLE 1 Using the Invention to Clone GP of EBOV under Control of the Endogenous RhCMV Rh25 Promoter, Thereby Producing a Recombinant RhCMV Expressing EBOV GP under the RhCMV Rh25 Promoter Reduction to Practice of EZ Recombination System II.

-   A) Schematic for insertion of EBOV GP within rhesus cytomegalovirus     (RhCMV) genome to place under control of endogenous Rh25 (UL9)     (late) promoter. ‘A’ (5′-AAAC-3′) and ‘C’ (5′-AAAC-3′ on reverse     strand) represent endogenous ‘half sites’ of PmeI (GTTTAAAC) in     flanking homology region (HR) upstream and downstream of target site     for insertion. PmeI was selected based on i) its absence from     flanking regions, and ii) absence from within the suicide-based     vectors containing the EBOV GP for insertion. -   B) FRC with the ‘new’ single PmeI site and necessary restriction     sites (NheI and MfeI) for insertion into the pminiOri (suicide-based     vector) was synthesized (using an AmpR carrier vector from GeneArt     from Invitrogen). -   C) The FRC was cloned into the pminiOri (suicide-based vector)     containing the EBOV GP for insertion into the RhCMV genome. -   D) Schematic of resulting plasmid. -   E) PmeI digestion was used to linearize the recombination fragment,     which contains the necessary—flanking HR for E/T based recombination     within the RhCMV genome. 5′ Phosphate residues are shown for DNA     strand orientation. -   F) Genomic characterization of multiple EcoRI digested RhCMV EBOV     (pRh25) BAC clones by DNA gel electrophoresis confirmed the absence     of any gross genetic rearrangements. -   G) BAC DNA was then electroporated into RhCMV-permissive rhesus     fibroblasts to reconstitute the RhCMV EBOV vaccine as a replicating     virus. Virus was purified and expression of the EBOV GP target     antigen was confirmed by western analysis of infected cell lysates.

Page 4 and 5—Reduction to Practice EXAMPLE 2 Using the Invention to Clone GP of EBOV under Control of the Endogenous RhCMV Rh220 Promoter, Thereby Producing a Recombinant RhCMV Expressing EBOV GP under the RhCMV Rh220 Promoter

Cloning of GP EBOV under Control of Rh220 Endogenous Promoter.

-   A) Schematic for insertion of EBOV GP within rhesus cytomegalovirus     (RhCMV) genome to place under control of endogenous Rh220     (US28.5) (E) promoter. ‘A’ (5′-AAAC-3′) and ‘C’ (5′-AAAC-3′ on     reverse strand) represent endogenous ‘half sites’ of PmeI (GTTTAAAC)     in flanking homology region (HR) upstream and downstream of target     site for insertion. PmeI was selected based on i) its absence from     flanking regions, and ii) absence from within the suicide-based     vectors containing the EBOV GP for insertion. -   B) FRC with the ‘new’ single PmeI site and necessary restriction     sites (NheI and MfeI) for insertion into the pminiOri (suicide-based     vector) was synthesized (using an AmpR carrier vector from GeneArt     from Invitrogen). -   C) The FRC was cloned into the pminiOri (suicide-based vector)     containing the EBOV GP for insertion into the RhCMV genome. -   D) Schematic of resulting plasmid. -   E) PmeI digestion was used to linearize the recombination fragment,     which contains the necessary—flanking HR for E/T or CrispR-based     recombination within the RhCMV genome. 5′ Phosphate residues are     shown for DNA strand orientation. -   F) Genomic characterization of multiple EcoRI digested RhCMV EBOV     (pRh220) BAC clones by DNA gel electrophoresis confirmed the absence     of any gross genetic rearrangements. -   G) BAC DNA was then electroporated into RhCMV-permissive rhesus     fibroblasts to reconstitute the RhCMV EBOV vaccine as a replicating     virus. Virus was purified and expression of the EBOV GP target     antigen was confirmed by western analysis of infected cell lysates.

Page 6 and 7—Reduction to Practice EXAMPLE 3 Using the Invention to Clone GP of EBOV under Control of the Heterologous Human EFI Alpha Promoter, Thereby Producing a Recombinant RhCMV Expressing EBOV GP under the Human EFI Alpha Promoter Reduction to Practice of EZ Recombination System II.

-   A) Schematic for insertion of EBOV GP within rhesus cytomegalovirus     (RhCMV) genome to place under control of a heterologous promoter.     ‘A’ (5′-AAAC-3′) and ‘C’ (5′-AAAC-3′ on reverse strand) represent     endogenous ‘half sites’ of PmeI (GTTTAAAC) in flanking homology     region (HR) upstream and downstream of target site for insertion.     PmeI was selected based on i) its absence from flanking regions,     and ii) absence from within the suicide-based vectors containing the     EBOV GP for insertion. -   B) FRC with the ‘new’ single PmeI site and necessary restriction     site (MfeI) for insertion into the pminiOri (suicide-based vector)     was synthesized (using an AmpR carrier vector from Gene-Art from     Invitrogen). -   C) The FRC was cloned into the pminiOri (suicide-based vector)     containing the EBOV GP for insertion into the RhCMV genome. -   D) Schematic of resulting plasmid. -   E) PmeI digestion was used to linearize the recombination fragment,     which contains the necessary—flanking HR for E/T based recombination     within the RhCMV genome. 5′ Phosphate residues are shown for DNA     strand orientation. -   F) Genomic characterization of multiple EcoRI digested RhCMV EBOV     (pEFI alpha) BAC clones by DNA gel electrophoresis confirmed the     absence of any gross genetic rearrangements.     Page 8—Overview of EZ-Recombination System with Proposed Use of     CrispR/Cas9 Technology Using Cloning of GP of EBOV under Control of     the Heterologous Human EFI Alpha Promoter as an Example.     Overview of EZ-Recombination System for Construction of     Recombination Fragment to Insert EFI Alpha-GP into RhCMV (between     rh213 and Rh214) using CrispR/Cas9 Technology. -   A) For CrispR/Cas9 recombination, HR regions of >500 nt are required     (Russell et al., 2015). Therefore, selected PmeI half sites located     634 bp upstream (nt 215,598) and 732 bp (nt 216,964) downstream of     desired site of insertion (*) (between 216,232 and 216,233). -   B) FRC with the ‘new’ single PmeI site, as well as MfeI sites for     insertion into EcoRI of pminiOri EFI alpha/EBOV GP (a suicide-based     vector) will be synthesized (using an AmpR carrier vector—gene     synthesis performed by GeneArt from Invitrogen). -   C) The FRC will be cloned into the EFI alpha EBOV/GP miniOri for     insertion into the RhCMV genome. Note: presence of endogenous EcoRI     site within the 5′UTR HR necessitates use of MfeI for cloning into     pminiOri EFI alpha/EBOV GP EcoRI site. -   D) Schematic of resulting plasmid. Note: EFIalpha EBOVGP ORF runs in     X to Y direction on ‘Genetic Element for Insertion’. -   E) PmeI digestion will be used to linearize the recombination     fragment, which now contains the necessary anking homology regions     (HR) for CrispR/Cas9-based recombination within the RhCMV genome. -   F) The frt-flanked KanR+TK/GFP cassette is removed from recombinant     RhCMV virus genome by co-expression of FLP recombinase (using a FLP     expression plasmid) in the presence of negative selection for TK     (gancyclovir). 5′ Phosphate residues are shown for DNA strand     orientation. (*) Site for genetic element insertion within RhCMV     genome (numbering based on Malouli et al. 2012; Acc# JQ795930)     within rh213 and Rh214 intergenic region. ‘A’ (5′-AAAC-3′) and ‘C’     (5′-AAAC-3′ on reverse strand) represent endogenous ‘half sites’ of     PmeI: GTTTAAAC (a rare 8 nt cutter).

Although illustrative embodiments of the invention have been disclosed in detail herein, with reference to the accompanying drawings, it is understood that the invention is not limited to the precise embodiments shown and that various changes and modifications can be effected therein by one skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the invention.

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What is claimed:
 1. A non-PCR based method for construction of a DNA recombination fragment with necessary flanking regions homologous to a desired site of genetic manipulation within a target DNA required for recombination-based manipulation of said target DNA, comprising the steps of: a. identifying a desired site of insertion for a genetic element in said target DNA; b. locating an endogenous, native, half-site of a selected restriction endonuclease present upstream of the site within the DNA to be targeted for genetic manipulation and thereby defining the 5′ extent of an upstream homology region; c. locating an endogenous, native, half-site of the same selected restriction endonuclease present downstream of the site within the DNA to be targeted for genetic manipulation and thereby defining the 3′ extent of a downstream homology region; d. synthesising a flanking region cassette (FRC) resulting in juxtapositioning of the upstream and downstream half-sites thereby causing formation of complete restriction site for the selected restriction endonuclease flanked by said upstream and downstream homology regions; and e. inserting the FRC into a plasmid vector which includes the genetic element to be used to manipulate the target DNA, conferring upon the plasmid vector the necessary flanking homology regions for recombination within the said target DNA at the desired site of insertion.
 2. A non-PCR based method for construction of a DNA recombination fragment with necessary flanking regions homologous to a desired site of genetic manipulation within a target DNA required for recombination-based manipulation of said target DNA, comprising the steps of: a. identifying a desired site of insertion for a genetic element in said target DNA; b. selection of heterologous, non-native, half-sites of a selected restriction endonuclease, with restriction site selection being based on absence of the restriction site in its complete form within upstream and downstream homology regions flanking the DNA region to be targeted; c. synthesising a flanking region cassette (FRC) including upstream and downstream homology regions and resulting in juxtapositioning of the upstream and downstream flanking homology regions separated by their non-native half-sites thereby causing formation of a complete restriction site for the selected restriction endonuclease flanked by the homology regions; and d. inserting the FRC into a plasmid vector which includes the genetic element to be used to manipulate the target DNA; conferring upon the vector the necessary flanking homology regions for recombination within the genome at the target site.
 3. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of linearising the vector by using the selected restriction endonuclease to cut within the FRC to form a recombination fragment, whereby the recombination fragment has the necessary flanking homology regions to direct recombination within the genome at the target site.
 4. The method of claim 1, in which the restriction endonuclease site is not present within either the flanking homology region or genetic element used during manipulation of the target DNA.
 5. The method of claim 1, in which the endonuclease is a rare cutter.
 6. The method of claim 1, in which the endonuclease is an eight nucleotide cutter.
 7. The method of claim 1, in which the upstream and downstream homology regions are at least 50 nucleotides in length or at least 500 nucleotides in length.
 8. (canceled)
 9. The method of claim 1 in which said target DNA is a viral genome.
 10. A method of inserting a recombination fragment into a genome comprising recombination of a vector formed according to claim 1 into a genome.
 11. The method of claim 10, in which the genetic element is inserted using E/T based recombination or CrispR/Cas9-based recombination.
 12. (canceled)
 13. (canceled)
 14. (canceled)
 15. A method of forming a recombinant viral-based vaccine comprising the step of CrispR-mediated recombination of a vector or fragment formed according to claim
 1. 16. The method of claim 15, in which the vaccine comprises a herpesvirus-based vector.
 17. The method of claim 16, in which the vector is a CMV-based vector.
 18. The method of claim 17, in which the CMV-based vector is selected from Human CMV (HCMV), Simian CMV (SCCMV), Rhesus CMV (RhCMV), Chimpanzee CMV (CCMV) Murine CMV (MCMV) and Gorilla CMV (GCMV).
 19. A vaccine consisting essentially of, consisting of, or comprising a vector as claimed in claim
 1. 20. (canceled)
 21. A method of treating a subject with an infectious disease, or at risk of becoming infected with an infectious disease, comprising selecting a subject in need of treatment and administering to the subject the vaccine of claim
 19. 22. (canceled)
 23. Use of a vaccine as claimed in claim 19 for the manufacture of a medicament for the prevention or treatment of a disease.
 24. (canceled)
 25. (canceled)
 26. (canceled)
 27. (canceled)
 28. (canceled)
 29. The method of claim 1, in which the upstream and downstream homology regions of the FRC appear in the opposite order to that which they are found in the target so that the restriction site is formed at their junction.
 30. The method of claim 2, in which the upstream and downstream homology regions of the FRC appear in the opposite order to that which they are found in the target so that the restriction site is formed at their junction. 